identifying and non-identifying clauses
relatives clause
two kinds of relative clause
Some relative clauses identify orclassify nouns: they tell us whichperson or thing, or which kind ofperson or thing, is meant. (Ingrammars, these are called‘identifying’, ‘defining’ or‘restrictive’ relative clauses.)
What’s the name of the tall manwho just came in?
People who take physicalexercise live longer.
Who owns the car which isparked outside?
Have you got something that willget ink out of a carpet?
Other relative clauses do notidentify or classify; they simplytell us more about a person orthing that is already identified. (In grammars, these are called‘non-identifying’, ‘non-defining’ or ‘non-restrictive’ relativeclauses.)
This is Ms Rogers, who’s joiningthe firm next week.
In 1908 Ford developed hisModel T car, which sold for $500.
There are several grammaticaldifferences between the twokinds of relative clause. Thereare also stylistic differences: non-identifying clauses aregenerally more formal, and areless frequent in informal speech.
pronunciation and punctuation
Identifying relative clausesusually follow immediately afterthe nouns that they modify, without a break: they are notseparated by pauses orintonation movements inspeech, or by commas inwriting. (This is because thenoun would be incompletewithout the relative clause, andthe sentence would make nosense or have a differentmeaning.) Non-identifyingclauses are normally separatedby pauses and/or intonationbreaks and commas. Compare:–The woman who does my hairhas moved to anotherhairdresser’s.Dorothy, who does my hair, has moved to anotherhairdresser’s.–She married a man that shemet on a bus.She married a very nice youngarchitect from Belfast, whomshe met on a bus.Note how the identifying clausescannot easily be left out.
The woman has moved toanother hairdresser’s. (Whichwoman?)
She married a man. (!)
When a non-identifying clausedoes not come at the end of asentence, two commas arenecessary.
Dorothy, who does my hair, hasmoved … (NOT Dorothy, whodoes my hair has moved …)
use of that
That is common as a relativepronoun in identifying clauses. In non-identifying clauses, thatis unusual. Compare:–Have you got a bookwhich/that is really easy toread?I lent him ‘The Old Man andthe Sea’, which is really easyto read. (NOT … ‘The Old Manand the Sea’, that is reallyeasy to read.)–Where’s the girl who/that sellsthe tickets?This is Naomi, who sells thetickets. (NOT This is Naomi, that sells the tickets.)
leaving out object pronouns
In identifying relative clauses, we often leave out objectpronouns, especially in aninformal style. In non-identifyingclauses this is not possible. Compare:–I feel sorry for the man shemarried.She met my brother, whomshe later married. (NOT Shemet my brother, she latermarried.)–Did you like the wine we dranklast night?I poured him a glass of wine, which he drank at once. (NOT Ipoured him a glass of wine, hedrank at once.)
relative clauses after indefinitenoun phrases
The distinction betweenidentifying and non–identifyingclauses is most clearwhen they modify definite nounphrases like the car, this house, my father, Mrs Lewis. Afterindefinite noun phrases like acar, some nurses or friends, thedistinction is less clear, andboth kinds of clause are oftenpossible with slight differencesof emphasis.
He’s got a new car that goeslike a bomb.
(OR He’s got a new car, whichgoes like a bomb.)
We became friendly with somenurses that John had met inParis.
(OR We became friendly withsome nurses, whom John hadmet in Paris.)
In general, identifying clausesare used when the informationthey give is felt to be centrallyimportant to the overallmessage. When this is not so, non-identifying clauses arepreferred.
somebody I know you’ll like
It is often possible to combinerelative clauses with indirectstatements and similarstructures, e.g. Iknow/said/feel/hope/wish (that) …, especially in an informalstyle. Expressions like I know, Isaid etc come after the positionof the relative pronoun.
We’re going to meet somebody(who/that) I know (that) you’lllike.
It’s a house (which/that) wefeel (that) we might want tobuy.
That’s the man (who/that) Iwish (that) I’d married.
Note that the conjunction (thesecond that) is usually droppedin this structure; it must bedropped if the relative pronounis a subject.
This is the woman (who/that) Ann said could show us thechurch.
(NOT This is the woman(who/that) Ann said that couldshow us …)
In this structure, peoplesometimes use whom as asubject pronoun. This is notgenerally considered correct.
This is a letter from my father, whom we hope will be out ofhospital soon. (More correct: …who we hope will be out …)
Relative clauses can also becombined with if‑clauses insentences like the following.
I am enclosing an applicationform, which I should be gratefulif you would sign and return.
a car that I didn’t know howfast it could go, etc
We do not usually combine arelative clause with an indirectquestion structure. However, this sometimes happens ininformal speech.
I’ve just been to see an oldfriend that I’m not sure whenI’m going to see again.
There’s a pile of washing-upthat I just don’t know how I’mgoing to do.
There is no grammaticallycorrect way of doing this whenthe relative pronoun is thesubject of the relative clause. However, sentences like thefollowing (with addedpronouns) are also sometimesheard in informal speech. Somereal examples:
I was driving a car that I didn’tknow how fast it could go.
It’s ridiculous to sing songsthat you don’t know what theymean.
There’s a control at the backthat I don’t understand how itworks.
There’s still one kid that I mustfind out whether she’s comingto the party or not.
omission of subject
In a very informal style, asubject relative pronoun issometimes dropped after thereis.
There’s a man at the doorwants to talk to you.
double object
Occasionally a relative pronounacts as the object of two verbs. This happens especially when arelative clause is followed bybefore …ing, after …ing orwithout …ing.
We have water that it’s bestnot to drink before boiling. (OR… boiling it.)
I’m sending you a letter that Iwant you to destroy afterreading. (OR … after reading it.)
He was somebody that youcould like without admiring. (OR… admiring him.)
older English: who and thatwhich
In older English, who could beused in a similar way to what, as noun + relative pronountogether, meaning ‘the personwho’, ‘whoever’ or ‘anybodywho’. In modern English, this isvery unusual.
Who steals my purse stealstrash. (Shakespeare, Othello)
(Modern English: Whoever/Anybody who …)
That which used to be used inthe same way as what. This, too, is very unusual in modernEnglish.
We have that which we need. (Modern English: We have whatwe need.)
relatives (1): basicinformation
relative clauses: the peoplewho live next door
Clauses beginning withquestion words (e.g. who, which, where) are often used tomodify nouns and somepronouns – to identify peopleand things, or to give moreinformation about them. Clauses used like this arecalled ‘relative clauses’.
Do you know the people wholive next door?
Those who want tickets can getthem from the office.
There’s a programme tonightwhich you might like.
He lives in a village wherethere are no shops.
relative pronouns: who, whom, which
When who, whom and whichintroduce relative clauses, theyare called ‘relative pronouns’. Who(m) refers to people andwhich to things.
What’s the name of the tallman who just came in? (NOT …the tall man which …)
It’s a book which will interestchildren of all ages. (NOT … abook who …)
subject and object
Who and which can be thesubjects of verbs in relativeclauses.
I like people who smile a lot.
This is the key which opens thegarage,
Who(m) and which can also bethe objects of verbs in relativeclauses. Whom is unusual in aninformal style .
Do you remember the peoplewho we met in Italy? (Who isthe object of met.)
I forget most of the films whichI see. (Which is the object ofsee.)
that = who/which
We often use that instead ofwho or which, especially in aninformal style.
I like people that smile a lot.
This is the key that opens thegarage.
Do you remember the peoplethat we met in Italy?
I forget most of the films that Isee.
all that, only … that etc
That is especially commonafter quantifiers like all, every(thing), some(thing), any(thing), no(thing), none, little, few, much, only, andafter superlatives.
Is this all that’s left? (Morenatural than … all which isleft?)
Have you got anything thatbelongs to me?
(More natural than … anythingwhich …)
The only thing that matters isto find our way home.
I hope the little that I’ve donehas been useful.
It’s the best film that’s everbeen made about madness.
Note that what cannot be used in these cases.
All that you say is certainlytrue. (NOT All what you say …)
leaving out object pronouns: the people we met
Object pronouns can often beleft out.
Do you remember the peoplewe met in Italy?
I forget most of the films I see.
All I want is your happiness.
This is not possible in allrelative clauses.
one subject or object is enough
As subjects or objects, who(m), which and that replace wordslike she, him or it: one subjector object in a relative clause isenough. Compare:–He’s got a new girlfriend. Sheworks in a garage.He’s got a new girlfriend whoworks in a garage. (NOT …who she works in a garage.)–This is Mr Rogers. You methim last year.This is Mr Rogers, whom youmet last year. (NOT … whomyou met him last year.)–Here’s an article. It mightinterest you.Here’s an article which mightinterest you. (NOT … which itmight interest you.)–I’ve found the car keys. Youwere looking for them.I’ve found the car keys thatyou were looking for. (NOT …that you were looking forthem.)
whose: a girl whose hair …
Whose is a possessive relativepronoun, used as a determinerbefore nouns. It replaceshis/her/its. For more details .
I saw a girl whose hair camedown to her waist. (NOT …whose her hair came down …)
which referring to a wholeclause
Which can refer not only to anoun, but also to the whole of aprevious clause. Note that whatcannot be used in this way.
He got married again a yearlater, which surprisedeverybody. (NOT … , whatsurprised everybody.)
She cycled from London toGlasgow, which is pretty goodfor a woman of 75. (NOT Shecycled … , what is pretty good…)
relative when, where and why
When and where can introducerelative clauses after nounsreferring to time and place. They are used in the same wayas preposition + which.
I’ll never forget the day when Ifirst met you. (= … the day onwhich …)
Do you know a shop where Ican find sandals? (= … a shopat which …)
Why is used in a similar wayafter reason.
Do you know the reason whyshe doesn’t like me? (= … thereason for which …)
two kinds of relative clause
Some relative clauses identify orclassify nouns: they tell us whichperson or thing, or which kind ofperson or thing, is meant. (Ingrammars, these are called‘identifying’, ‘defining’ or‘restrictive’ relative clauses.)
What’s the name of the tall manwho just came in?
People who take physicalexercise live longer.
Who owns the car which isparked outside?
Have you got something that willget ink out of a carpet?
Other relative clauses do notidentify or classify; they simplytell us more about a person orthing that is already identified. (In grammars, these are called‘non-identifying’, ‘non-defining’ or ‘non-restrictive’ relativeclauses.)
This is Ms Rogers, who’s joiningthe firm next week.
In 1908 Ford developed hisModel T car, which sold for $500.
There are several grammaticaldifferences between the twokinds of relative clause. Thereare also stylistic differences: non-identifying clauses aregenerally more formal, and areless frequent in informal speech.
pronunciation and punctuation
Identifying relative clausesusually follow immediately afterthe nouns that they modify, without a break: they are notseparated by pauses orintonation movements inspeech, or by commas inwriting. (This is because thenoun would be incompletewithout the relative clause, andthe sentence would make nosense or have a differentmeaning.) Non-identifyingclauses are normally separatedby pauses and/or intonationbreaks and commas. Compare:–The woman who does my hairhas moved to anotherhairdresser’s.Dorothy, who does my hair, has moved to anotherhairdresser’s.–She married a man that shemet on a bus.She married a very nice youngarchitect from Belfast, whomshe met on a bus.Note how the identifying clausescannot easily be left out.
The woman has moved toanother hairdresser’s. (Whichwoman?)
She married a man. (!)
When a non-identifying clausedoes not come at the end of asentence, two commas arenecessary.
Dorothy, who does my hair, hasmoved … (NOT Dorothy, whodoes my hair has moved …)
use of that
That is common as a relativepronoun in identifying clauses. In non-identifying clauses, thatis unusual. Compare:–Have you got a bookwhich/that is really easy toread?I lent him ‘The Old Man andthe Sea’, which is really easyto read. (NOT … ‘The Old Manand the Sea’, that is reallyeasy to read.)–Where’s the girl who/that sellsthe tickets?This is Naomi, who sells thetickets. (NOT This is Naomi, that sells the tickets.)
leaving out object pronouns
In identifying relative clauses, we often leave out objectpronouns, especially in aninformal style. In non-identifyingclauses this is not possible. Compare:–I feel sorry for the man shemarried.She met my brother, whomshe later married. (NOT Shemet my brother, she latermarried.)–Did you like the wine we dranklast night?I poured him a glass of wine, which he drank at once. (NOT Ipoured him a glass of wine, hedrank at once.)
relative clauses after indefinitenoun phrases
The distinction betweenidentifying and non–identifyingclauses is most clearwhen they modify definite nounphrases like the car, this house, my father, Mrs Lewis. Afterindefinite noun phrases like acar, some nurses or friends, thedistinction is less clear, andboth kinds of clause are oftenpossible with slight differencesof emphasis.
He’s got a new car that goeslike a bomb.
(OR He’s got a new car, whichgoes like a bomb.)
We became friendly with somenurses that John had met inParis.
(OR We became friendly withsome nurses, whom John hadmet in Paris.)
In general, identifying clausesare used when the informationthey give is felt to be centrallyimportant to the overallmessage. When this is not so, non-identifying clauses arepreferred.
somebody I know you’ll like
It is often possible to combinerelative clauses with indirectstatements and similarstructures, e.g. Iknow/said/feel/hope/wish (that) …, especially in an informalstyle. Expressions like I know, Isaid etc come after the positionof the relative pronoun.
We’re going to meet somebody(who/that) I know (that) you’lllike.
It’s a house (which/that) wefeel (that) we might want tobuy.
That’s the man (who/that) Iwish (that) I’d married.
Note that the conjunction (thesecond that) is usually droppedin this structure; it must bedropped if the relative pronounis a subject.
This is the woman (who/that) Ann said could show us thechurch.
(NOT This is the woman(who/that) Ann said that couldshow us …)
In this structure, peoplesometimes use whom as asubject pronoun. This is notgenerally considered correct.
This is a letter from my father, whom we hope will be out ofhospital soon. (More correct: …who we hope will be out …)
Relative clauses can also becombined with if‑clauses insentences like the following.
I am enclosing an applicationform, which I should be gratefulif you would sign and return.
a car that I didn’t know howfast it could go, etc
We do not usually combine arelative clause with an indirectquestion structure. However, this sometimes happens ininformal speech.
I’ve just been to see an oldfriend that I’m not sure whenI’m going to see again.
There’s a pile of washing-upthat I just don’t know how I’mgoing to do.
There is no grammaticallycorrect way of doing this whenthe relative pronoun is thesubject of the relative clause. However, sentences like thefollowing (with addedpronouns) are also sometimesheard in informal speech. Somereal examples:
I was driving a car that I didn’tknow how fast it could go.
It’s ridiculous to sing songsthat you don’t know what theymean.
There’s a control at the backthat I don’t understand how itworks.
There’s still one kid that I mustfind out whether she’s comingto the party or not.
omission of subject
In a very informal style, asubject relative pronoun issometimes dropped after thereis.
There’s a man at the doorwants to talk to you.
double object
Occasionally a relative pronounacts as the object of two verbs. This happens especially when arelative clause is followed bybefore …ing, after …ing orwithout …ing.
We have water that it’s bestnot to drink before boiling. (OR… boiling it.)
I’m sending you a letter that Iwant you to destroy afterreading. (OR … after reading it.)
He was somebody that youcould like without admiring. (OR… admiring him.)
older English: who and thatwhich
In older English, who could beused in a similar way to what, as noun + relative pronountogether, meaning ‘the personwho’, ‘whoever’ or ‘anybodywho’. In modern English, this isvery unusual.
Who steals my purse stealstrash. (Shakespeare, Othello)
(Modern English: Whoever/Anybody who …)
That which used to be used inthe same way as what. This, too, is very unusual in modernEnglish.
We have that which we need. (Modern English: We have whatwe need.)
relatives (1): basicinformation
relative clauses: the peoplewho live next door
Clauses beginning withquestion words (e.g. who, which, where) are often used tomodify nouns and somepronouns – to identify peopleand things, or to give moreinformation about them. Clauses used like this arecalled ‘relative clauses’.
Do you know the people wholive next door?
Those who want tickets can getthem from the office.
There’s a programme tonightwhich you might like.
He lives in a village wherethere are no shops.
relative pronouns: who, whom, which
When who, whom and whichintroduce relative clauses, theyare called ‘relative pronouns’. Who(m) refers to people andwhich to things.
What’s the name of the tallman who just came in? (NOT …the tall man which …)
It’s a book which will interestchildren of all ages. (NOT … abook who …)
subject and object
Who and which can be thesubjects of verbs in relativeclauses.
I like people who smile a lot.
This is the key which opens thegarage,
Who(m) and which can also bethe objects of verbs in relativeclauses. Whom is unusual in aninformal style .
Do you remember the peoplewho we met in Italy? (Who isthe object of met.)
I forget most of the films whichI see. (Which is the object ofsee.)
that = who/which
We often use that instead ofwho or which, especially in aninformal style.
I like people that smile a lot.
This is the key that opens thegarage.
Do you remember the peoplethat we met in Italy?
I forget most of the films that Isee.
all that, only … that etc
That is especially commonafter quantifiers like all, every(thing), some(thing), any(thing), no(thing), none, little, few, much, only, andafter superlatives.
Is this all that’s left? (Morenatural than … all which isleft?)
Have you got anything thatbelongs to me?
(More natural than … anythingwhich …)
The only thing that matters isto find our way home.
I hope the little that I’ve donehas been useful.
It’s the best film that’s everbeen made about madness.
Note that what cannot be used in these cases.
All that you say is certainlytrue. (NOT All what you say …)
leaving out object pronouns: the people we met
Object pronouns can often beleft out.
Do you remember the peoplewe met in Italy?
I forget most of the films I see.
All I want is your happiness.
This is not possible in allrelative clauses.
one subject or object is enough
As subjects or objects, who(m), which and that replace wordslike she, him or it: one subjector object in a relative clause isenough. Compare:–He’s got a new girlfriend. Sheworks in a garage.He’s got a new girlfriend whoworks in a garage. (NOT …who she works in a garage.)–This is Mr Rogers. You methim last year.This is Mr Rogers, whom youmet last year. (NOT … whomyou met him last year.)–Here’s an article. It mightinterest you.Here’s an article which mightinterest you. (NOT … which itmight interest you.)–I’ve found the car keys. Youwere looking for them.I’ve found the car keys thatyou were looking for. (NOT …that you were looking forthem.)
whose: a girl whose hair …
Whose is a possessive relativepronoun, used as a determinerbefore nouns. It replaceshis/her/its. For more details .
I saw a girl whose hair camedown to her waist. (NOT …whose her hair came down …)
which referring to a wholeclause
Which can refer not only to anoun, but also to the whole of aprevious clause. Note that whatcannot be used in this way.
He got married again a yearlater, which surprisedeverybody. (NOT … , whatsurprised everybody.)
She cycled from London toGlasgow, which is pretty goodfor a woman of 75. (NOT Shecycled … , what is pretty good…)
relative when, where and why
When and where can introducerelative clauses after nounsreferring to time and place. They are used in the same wayas preposition + which.
I’ll never forget the day when Ifirst met you. (= … the day onwhich …)
Do you know a shop where Ican find sandals? (= … a shopat which …)
Why is used in a similar wayafter reason.
Do you know the reason whyshe doesn’t like me? (= … thereason for which …)
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